History: presentations

MAY, 22

Group 27: Despite the fact that it was the first presentation, it was very interesting and well organized.

Group 25: It was well organized and very interesting, and the members of the group did it really well.

Group 24: The information was concised and very useful.

Group 23: A good presentation, where we could see that the members had prepared it very hard.

Group 22: A efficient preparation and presentation of the main point regarding grammar, phonology and pronunciation.

MAY, 27

Group 21: They have talked about the semantic fields and the etymology of words but they would have focused more on pronunciation.

Group 18: They made a good awarding of the most significant points in Chaucer's features.

Group 17: It was very interesting that they included information about the three states that appear in the General Prologue (God, the King, and the people), and they also focused on the main important characters.

MAY, 29

Group 16: They focused in Chaucer's dialect, the changes from Old English and the main characters.

Group 14: It was a detailed presentation and they also included an audio of a little fragment of the General Prologue.

Group 13: Their presentation was an exhaustive analysis of Chaucer's characteristics and main features, and also we can emphasized that they read a fragment in Middle English showing a very good pronunciation.

Group 12: Now it is time to do a self-criticism of our own presentation. We recognized that we were so far from being the best group, but we are proud of our work, because we tried to underline the most relevant features of our text not being tedious.

Group 11: We spent a nice time while we were hearing their presentation.

Group 10: It was an interesting presentation because they tried to explain the phonological changes of the Great Vowel Shift , and they also went in depth talking about some historical facts that were not mentioned before, such as the Norman Conquest and the influence of Latin.

History Presentation 29th May 2009 (Group 12)

HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Chaucer’s General Prologue
Lines 531-580
Group 12


Geoffrey Chaucer
Born in 1343 (London) and died in 1400.
English author, poet, philosopher, bureaucrat, courtier and diplomat.
He is best remembered for his unfinished narrative “The Canterbury Tales”.
He was influenced by the educated London dialect.

Main Points
Metrical analysis
--Rhyme
-Stress pattern
-Final -e
Phonology
-Phonetic changes (Great Vowel Shift)
Etymology
-Origin of words
-Function and lexical words.
-Archaic words


Metrical analysis
There is a rhyme scheme evident which is established in rhyming couplets.

Chaucer employs an AABB rhyme and an iambic ten-syllable per line scheme to set the rhythm (iambic pentameter).

-GP 579 Wor / thy // to / been // sty / ward(e)s // of / rent(e) // and / lond (10 syllables)
GP 580 Of / a // ny / lord // that / is // in / En // g(e) / lond (10 syllables)


This unit of rhyming is said to be a “foot” containing an unstressed syllable (x) followed by a stressed syllable (/) – x /, which is called an iamb, and there are five of these in a line of verse. Therefore a regular iambic pentameter line contains ten syllables of alternating unstressed and stressed syllables x/ /x / x / x / x / (de-DUM)

-GP 579 Wor / thy // to / been // sty / ward(e)s // of / rent(e) // and / lond (10 syllables)
GP 580 Of / a // ny / lord // that / is // in / En // g(e) / lond (10 syllables)


Lines of verse are not always absolutely regular, but with this pattern in mind, we have plenty of evidence in Chaucer’s verse about the number of syllables in words, and their pronunciation and stress patterns.


-GP 567 A / gen / til / MAUN / CI / PLE / was / ther / of / a / temple, (11 syllables)
GP 568 Of / which // a / cha // tours / myghte // ta / ke // e / xemple (10 syllables)


According to Chaucer, some final (-e) suffixes were pronounced, and some were not. Remember that a final (–e) before a word beginning with a vowel or (h-) is elided, and not pronounced.


-GP 577 That / we // ren / of // law(e) / ex // pert / and // cu / rious, (10 syllables)
GP 578 Of / which // ther / wer(e) // a / dus // zeyn(e) / in // that / hous (10 syllables)


Phonology


Spelling with (alternative to ) shows that Middle English /i:/ has raised to /i/ or /ai/.

Byg/bigà/bɪg/ tyme/timeà/taɪm/ myhgt/mightà/maɪt/


Final –e is lost in spelling because it is pronouced with /ə/ or Ø.

Hadde/hadà/hæd/ lawe/lawà/lɔ:/ alle/allà /ɔ:l/


On the other hand, the addition of a final -e is the result of using the letter as a diacritic letter to mark a preceding long vowel, as Hart said.

Whit/whiteà /hwaɪt/ hous/houseà /haʊs/

Words with or letters were pronounced as /oʊ/ or /u:/, and they have shifted towards /aʊ/ or /əʊ/.

Towne/townà /taʊn/ mouth/mouthà /maʊθ/

The vowel pronounced /u/ is sometimes spelt with or .

toà/tu:/ goodà/gʊd/

Middle English words with open /ɛ:/ are spelt in Modern English with and pronounced in different ways.

herte/heartà/hɑ:rt/ heep/heapà/hi:p/
Heed/headà/hed/ greet/greatà/grɛɪt/


According to Hart, some words have a double consonant to mark the preceding vowel as short.

ful/fullà/fʊl/ wel/wellà/wel/ shal/shallà/ʃæl/

Old English spelling and pronunciation of the low back vowel varied between and . Chaucer has lond /lɔnd/, which today is land /lænd/.


Words with shifted towards /ɛ:/ or /e:/, and also to /eɪ/ in Present Day English.

Grace/graceà /greɪs/ sake/sakeà /seɪk/ pace/paceà /peɪs/

Some words of non-English origin adapted their form to the English phonology, according to the way they were pronounced.

Charitee-charity (à /e:/ à /i:/)



Etymology:
origin of words

OLD ENGLISH
OLD FRENCH
ANGLO-FRENCH
LATIN
OLD FRISIAN
ANGLO-NORMAN



Function and lexical words

Function words remain practically untouched in Present Day English maybe because they are the most used.


And: From Old English and, ond, with the original meaning of “thereupon, next”, from Proto-Germanic *unda (compare with Old Saxon endi, Old Frisian anda, Middle Dutch ende, Old High German enti, German und, Old Norse enn). It is cognated with Latin ante and German anti. The Middle English and the Modern English forms are identical, the conjunction and used to connect words or parts of sentences “also, I addition, added to, etc”.

Of: From Old English of, unstressed form of æf (preposition, adverb), meaning “away, away from”, from Proto Germanic *af- (compare with Old Norse af, Old Frisian af/ of, Dutch af and German ab), from Proto-Indo-European *apo- meaning “off, away”. In Middle English, as in Modern English, of is a preposition which expresses property, position, construction, opinion etc “belonging to, consisting of, coming from, etc”.



However, lexical words change their form in spelling and pronunciation most of the time.

Parfit: c.1225 (implied in perfectiun), from Old French parfit (11c.), from Latin perfectus "completed," pp. of perficere "accomplish, finish, complete," from per- "completely" + facere "to perform". Often used in Eng. as an intensive (perfect stranger, etc.). The Middle English form is parfit. In Modern English perfect.



So, we can conclude that there is variation in Chaucer because some words appear in the text with different spellings.

alle=al the negative particles no, ne, nat=not
hade=hadde
were=weren
ffor=for

ARCHAIC WORDS

We have noticed that there are some words that Chaucer uses in “The General Prologue” which have become nowadays obsolete words. Some examples of them are:

SWYNKERE-WORKER
WIGHT-CREATURE
PARDEE-INDEED (LITERAL TRANSLATION “BY GOD”)
JANGLERE-TALKER



BIBLIOGRAPHY

http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O43-ChaucerGeoffrey.html
http://www.etymonline.com/
http://mindlace.net/tmp/ets.umdl.umich.edu/m/med/lookup.html Freeborn, Dennis. From Old English to Standard English. Third Edition. 2006.

portfolio 6: etymology of words

ORIGIN AND ETYMOLOGY OF THE WORDS IN THE TEXT FROM CHAUCER’S CANTERBURY TALES

Original text
A trewe swynkere and a good was he,
Lyuynge in pees and parfit charitee.
God loued he best with al his hoole herte
At alle tymes, thogh he gamed or smerte,
And thanne his neighbore right as hym selue,
He wolde thresshe and therto dyke and delue,
ffor cristes sake, for euery poure wight
Withouten hire, if it lay in his myght,
Hise tithes payde he ful faire and wel,
Bothe of his propre synk and his catel.
In a Tabard he vpon a Mere.
Ther was also a Reue and a Millere,
A Somnour and a Pardoner also,
A Maunciple and my self - ther were namo.
The Millere was a stout carl for the nones,
fful byg he was of brawn and eek of bones;
That prooued wel for ouer al ther he cam,
At wrastlynge he wolde haue alwey the Ram.
He was short sholdred, brood, a thikke knarre;
Ther was no dore that he ne wolde heue of harre,
Or breke it at a rennyng with his heed.
His berd was as any sowe or fox was reed,
And ther to brood as though it were a spade.
Vp on the cope right of his nose he hade
A werte, and ther on stood a toft of herys,
Reed as the brustles of a sowes erys,
Hise nosethirles blake were and wyde.
A swerd and a bokeler bar he by his syde.
His mouth as greet was as a greet forneys.
He was a langlere and a goliardeys,
And that was moost of synne and horlotries.
Wel koude he stelen corn and tollen thries -
And yet he hadde a thombe of gold, pardee.
A whit cote and a blew hood wered he.
A baggepipe wel koude he blowe and sowne,
And ther with al he broghte vs out of towne.
A gentil Maunciple was ther of a temple,
Of which Achatours myghte take exemple
ffor to be wise in byynge of vitaille:
ffor wheither that he payde or took by taille,
Algate he wayted so in his Achaat
That he was ay biforn in good staat.
Now is nat that of god a ful fair grace,
That swich a lewed mannes wit shal pace
The wisdom of an heepe of lerned men?
Of maistres hadde he mo that thries ten
That weren of lawe expert and curious;
Of whiche ther weren a duszeyne in that hous
Worthy to been stywardes of rente and lond
Of any lord that is in Engelond.


Etymology
A: c. 1150, the indefinite article, a variation of the Old English an, in which the -n- began to disappear before consonant. The -n- also was retained before words beginning with a sound -h- until c. 1600, but it is still retained before unaccented syllables in h- or (e)u-, but it is no longer spoken as such. The Modern English form maintains the -n- before vowels and unstressed h-.

Achatours: 1600, from Middle English catour (n.) "buyer of provisions" (c.1400), aphetic for Anglo-Fr. achatour, from O.Fr. achater "to buy," orig. "to buy provisions," from V.L. *accaptare, from L. ad- "to" + captare "to take, hold," freq. of capere "to take". Caterer is attested from 1592. In Modern English it is used to be translated as buyers.

Al: From Old English eall "all, every, entire," from Proto Germanic *alnaz (compare with Old Frisian., Old High German al, Old Norse allr, Gothic alls). The Middle English form is al/alle. In Modern English all.

Algate: c.1350, compound of Old English phrase ealne weg "always, quite, perpetually," lit. "all the way," with accusative of space or distance, though the oldest recorded usages refer to time. The adverbial genitive -s appeared c.1230 and is now the standard, though the variant alway survived into 1800s. The Middle English form is algate, and the Modern English form is always.

Also: From Old English eallswa "exactly so," compound of all+so. The demonstrative sense of "similarly" weakened to "in addition to" in 12c., replacing eke. The compound has parallel forms in German also, Dutch alzoo. The Middle English form is also. In Modern English also.

Alwey: Derived from a compound of the Old English phrase ealne weg, literally “all the way”. The adverb genitive –s appeared around 1230, and is now standard (always), though the variant alway survived into 1800s.

And: From Old English and, ond, with the original meaning of “thereupon, next”, from Proto-Germanic *unda (compare with Old Saxon endi, Old Frisian anda, Middle Dutch ende, Old High German enti, German und, Old Norse enn). It is cognated with Latin ante and German anti. The Middle English and the Modern English forms are identical, the conjunction and used to connect words or parts of sentences “also, I addition, added to, etc”.

Any: From Old English ænig “any, anyone”, from Proto-Germanic *ainagas (compare with Old Saxon enig, Old Norse einigr, Old Frisian enich, Dutch enig, German einig). The combinations anywise, anyone and anything date back to Old English. Anywhere is from c. 1300; anybody is from 1490, anyway is from 1570 (anyways from 1560), anyhow is from 1740 and anyplace is from 1934. The Middle English form is any, the same form than in Modern English.

As: c. 1175, worn-down form of the Old English alswa “quite so, also”. Related to Germanic als “as, than”. The Middle English form is as, the same form as in Modern English.

At: From Old English æt, a common Proto-Germanic word (compare with Old Norse and Gothic at, Old Frisian et and Old High German az), from Proto-Indo-European *ad-,meaning “to, near, at”, (Latin ad “to, toward”). The word has remained invariable except for the change of the Old English vowel æ to a (in the Early Middle English period).


Baggepipe : c.1386, from the combination of bag + pipe; originally a favourite instrument in England as well as the Celtic lands, but by 1912 English army officers' slang for it was agony bags.
bag : c.1230, bagge, from Old Norse baggi or a similar Scandinavian source, perhaps ultimately of Celtic origin. Disparaging slang for "woman" dates from 1924. Meaning "person's area of interest or expertise" is 1964, from Black Eng. slang, from jazz sense of "category," probably via notion of putting something in a bag. Baggy "puffed out, hanging loosely" is 1834. Many fig. senses are from the notion of the game bag (1486) into which the product of the hunt was placed; e.g. the verb meaning "to kill game" (1814) and its colloquial extension to "catch, seize, steal" (1818). Its form in Middle English is bag, as in Modern English.

pipe: From Old English pipe "musical wind instrument,". The verb sense of "to play on a pipe" is from Old English pipian; the meaning "convey through pipes" is first recorded 1889.A pipe dream (1896) is the sort of improbably fantasy one has while smoking opium. Piping hot is in Chaucer, a reference to hissing of food in a frying pan; to pipe up (c.1425) originally meant "to begin to play" (on a musical instrument). Pipe down "be quiet" first recorded 1900. The Middle English form is pipe, as in Modern English.

Bar: From Old English beran meaning “bear, bring” (class IV strong verb, past tense baer, past participle boren), from Proto-Germanic *beranan (compare with Old High German beran, Old Norse bera, Gothic bairan), from Proto-Indo-European root *bher- meaning “giving birth”. The Old English past tense baer became Middle English bare (bar), and alternative bore began to appear around 1400. In Modern English the verb is to bear and bore is the past form.

be: From Old English beon, beom, bion "be, exist, come to be, become," from Proto-Germanic *beo-, *beu-. Roger Lass ("Old English") describes the verb as "a collection of semantically related paradigm fragments," while Weekley calls it "an accidental conglomeration from the different Old English dial[ect]s." It is the most irregular verb in Modern English, and the most common. Collective in all Gmc. languages, it has eight different forms in Mod.E.: BE (infinitive, subjunctive, imperative), AM (present 1st person singular), ARE (present 2nd person singular and all plural), IS (present 3rd person singular), WAS (past 1st and 3rd persons singular), WERE (past 2nd person singular, all plural; subjunctive), BEING (progressive & present participle; gerund), BEEN (perfect participle). The modern verb represents the merger of two once-distinct verbs, the "b-root" represented by be and the am/was verb, which was itself a conglomerate. The "b-root" is from PIE base *bheu-, *bhu- "grow, come into being, become," and in addition to Eng. it yielded Ger. present first and second person sing. (bin, bist, from O.H.G. bim "I am," bist "thou art"), L. perf. tenses of esse (fui "I was," etc.), O.C.S. byti "be," Gk. phu- "become," O.Ir. bi'u "I am," Lith. bu'ti "to be," Rus. byt' "to be," etc. It is also behind Skt. bhavah "becoming," bhavati "becomes, happens," bhumih "earth, world."

Berd: From Old English beard, from West Germanic *barthaz (compare with Middle Dutch baert, Germanic bart), seemingly from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) *bhar-dha “beard” (Latin barba). The Middle English form is berd. In Modern English bear.

Best: From Old English betst, originally superlative of bot "remedy, reparation," the root word now only surviving in to boot, though its comparative, better, and superlative, best, transferred to good (and in some cases well). From Proto Germanic root *bat-. The Middle English form is best. In Modern English best.

Biforn: Old English beforan, from P.Gmc. *bi- "by" + *forana "from the front," adv. derivative of *fora Beforehand is Middle English originally two words, specifically a reference to payment in advance. The Modern English form is before.

Blake: From Old English blaec, from Proto-Germanic *blak- (compare with Old Norse blakkr “dark”, Dutch blaken “to burn”), from Proto-Indo-European *bhleg-. In Middle English it is often doubtful whether blac, blak or blake means “black, dark” or “pale, colourless, wan”. The Modern English form is black, meaning “colour black, dark, without light”.

Blew: Around 1300 (blew, bleu, blew), from Old French bleu, from Frankish blao, from Proto-Germanic *blæwaz, from Proto-Indo-European base *bhle-was, meaning “light colored, blue, blond and yellow”. The exact colour to which the Germanic term applies varies in the older dialects. The Modern spelling (blue) dates from the 16th century (French influence).

Blowe:"move air," From Old English blawan "make an air current, sound a wind instrument" (class VII strong verb; past tense bleow, pp. blawen), from P.Gmc. *blæ-anan (compare with O.H.G. blaen), from PIE *bhle- "to swell, blow up" (cf. L. flare "to blow"). The Middle English form is blowe, and the Modern English form is blow.

Bokeler: From Old French boucler, from Latin *buccularius (adjective), from buccula. The Middle English form is bokeler, meaning “a small round shield used to ward off blows”. The Modern English form is buckler (c. 1300) “one who makes bucklers”.

Bones: From Old English ban, from Proto Germanic *bainam (compare with Old Norse bein, Danish ben, German Bein). No cognates outside Germanic (the common Proto-Indo-European root is *ost-); the Old Norse, Dutch, and German cognates also mean "shank of the leg," and this is the main sense in Modern German, but Engglish never seems to have had this sense. The Middle English form is bones. In Modern English bones.

Bothe: There are several theories, all similar, and deriving the word from the tendency to say "both the." One is that it is from Old English begen (masc.) "both" (from Proto Germanic *ba, from Proto-Indo-European *bho "both") + -þ extended base. Another traces it to the Proto Germanic formula represented in Old English by ba þa "both these," from ba (feminine nominative and accusative of begen) + þa, nominative and accusative plural of se "that." A third traces it to Old Norse baðir "both," from *bai thaiz "both the," from Proto Germanic *thaiz, third person plural pronoun. The Middle English form is bothe. In Modern English both.

Brawn: 1290, from Old French braon "fleshy or muscular part, buttock," from Frankish *brado "ham, roast," from Proto Germanic *bræd- (compare with Old High German brato "tender meat," German Braten "roast," Old Norse brað "raw meat," Old English bræd "flesh"), from Proto-Indo-European *bhre- "burn, heat," from base *bureue- "to boil, bubble, effervesce, burn". The original sense is "piece of meat suitable for roasting." "The specific sense 'boar's flesh' is exclusively of English development, and characteristic of English habits". The Middle English form is brawn. . In Modern English muscle.

Breke: From Old English brecan (class IV strong verb, past form braec, past participle broken), from Proto-Germanic *brekan (Old Frisian break, Dutch breken, Old High German behhan, Germna brechen), from Proto-Indo-European base *bhre- “to break”. The Modern English form is break.

Broghte : past tense of bring. From Old English bringan (past tense brohte, past participle broht), from Proto-Germanic *brenganan (compare with Old Frisian brenga; M.Du. brenghen; O.H.G. bringan; Goth. briggan, p.t. brohte, pp. broht); no exact cognates outside Gmc., but it appears to be from PIE base *bhrengk-, compound based on root *bher- "to carry" (cf. L. ferre). The tendency to conjugate this as a strong verb on the model of sing, drink, etc., is ancient: O.E. also had a rare strong pp. form, brungen, corresponding to modern colloquial brung. Its Middle English form was broghte, and the Modern English form was brought.

Brood: From Old English brad, from Proto-Germanic *braithaz (compare with Old Frisian bred, Old Norse breiđr, Dutch breed, German breit, Gothic brouþs). It is not found outside Germanic languages. The Middle English form is brood, and the Modern English form is broad.

Brustles: From Old English byrst, from Proto-Germanic *bors-, from Proto-Indo-European *bhrsti-, from base *bhar-. The Middle English form is brustle, but the Modern English form is bristle.

By: From Old English be (unstressed) or bi (stressed), from Proto-Germanic *bi “around, about”. Originally it was an adverbial particle of place, in which sense it is retained in place names. In Modern English by is a preposition indicating where, who, when, what, etc. and an adverb.

Byg: c.1300, northern England dialect, "powerful, strong," of unknown origin, possibly from a Scandinavian source (compare with Norwegian dialectal bugge "great man”). The Middle English form is byg. In Modern English big, strong.

byynge: From Old English bycgan (pt. bohte) from Proto-Germanic *bugjanan (cf. O.S. buggjan, Goth. bugjan), of unknown origin, not found outside Gmc. The surviving spelling is southwest England dialect; the word was generally pronounced in O.E. and M.E. with a -dg- sound as "budge," or "bidge." The Middle English form was byynge, and the Modern English form was buy.

Cam: From Old English cuman "come" (class IV strong verb; past tense cuom, com, pp. cumen), from Proto Germanic *kwem-, from Proto-Indo-European base *gwem- "to go, come" (compare with Sanskrit gamati "he goes," Avestan jamaiti "goes," Tocharian kakmu "come," Lithuanian gemu "to be born," Greek bainein "to go, walk, step," L. venire "to come"). Past tense form is probably from Old Norse kvam, replacing Old English cuom. The Middle English form is cam. In Modern English came.

Carl: From Old English ceorl "peasant, freeman, man without rank," from Proto Germanic *kerlaz, *karlaz. It had various meaning in early Middle English, including "man of the common people," "a country man," "husbandman," "free peasant;" by 1300, it meant "bondman, villain," also "fellow of low birth or rude manners." The Middle English form is carl. In Modern English fellow.

Catel: c.1250, from Anglo-French catel "property," from Medieval Latin capitale "property, stock," neut. of Latin capitalis "principal, chief," from caput "head". Originally sense was of moveable property, especially livestock; not limited to "cows" until 1555. The Middle English form is catel. In Modern English property.

Charitee: 1137, "benevolence for the poor," from Old French charite, from Latin caritas (acc. caritatem) "costliness, esteem, affection", from carus "dear, valued," from Proto-Indo-European *karo-, from base *ka- "to like, desire". The Middle English form is charitee. In Modern English charity.

Coat: From Old French cote, from Frankish *kotta, meaning “coarse cloth”. The Middle English form is identical to the Modern English one, which dates from c. 1300.

Corn: From Old English corn, from Proto-Germanic *kurnam, meaning “small seed”, from Proto-Indo-European base *ger-, meaning “wear away” (compare with Old Slavonic zruno, Latin granum). The sense in Old English was “grain with the seed still in”. The Middle English changed that sense developing in “any plant that is grown for its grain; the grain of these plants”, as in Modern English. The spelling has remained invariable.

Cristes: From Old English crist, from Latin Christus, from Greek khristos "the anointed", from khriein "to rub, anoint," title given to Jesus of Nazareth. The Latin term drove out Old English hæland "healer" as the preferred descriptive term for Jesus. A title, treated as a proper name in O.E., but not regularly capitalized until 17c. The Middle English form is Cristes. In Modern English Christ’s.
Curious: "eager to know" (often in a bad sense), from Latin curiosus "careful, diligent, curious," akin to cura "care." The objective sense of "exciting curiosity" is 1715. In booksellers' catalogues, the word means "erotic, pornographic." Curiosity is c.1378; in sense of "object of interest," 1645. Curiouser and curiouser is from "Alice in Wonderland" (1865). The Middle English form is curious, as in Modern English.
Delve: From Old English delfan "to dig" (class III strong verb; past tense dealf, pp. dolfen), common West Germanic verb with cognates in Slavic. Weak inflections emerged 14c.-16c. The Middle English form is delve. In Modern English dig.

Dore: Middle English merger of the Old English word dor (neuter) and dure (feminine), both from Proto-Germanic *dor-, from Proto-Indo-European *dhmer-/ *dhwor- “a door, a gate”. The Middle English language had both dure and dor, but form dore was also accepted and predominant during the 16th century, and it was finally supplanted by door (Modern English form).

duszeyne: From Old French dozeine "a dozen," from douze "twelve," from L. duodecim, from duo "two" + decem "ten." The O.Fr. fem. suffix -aine is characteristically added to cardinals to form collectives in a precise sense ("exactly 12," not "about 12"). The Middle English form is duszeyne, and the Modern English form is dozen.

Dyke: From Old English dic "ditch, dike," a variant of dike. Sense of "abandon, discard" is first recorded in Amer.Eng. 1899. The Middle English form is dyke. In Modern English ditch.

Eek: From Old English ecan, eacan, eacian "addition, reinforcement," probably from eaca "an increase," from Proto Germanic *aukan (compare with Old Norse auka, Old Frisian aka, Gothic aukan), from Proto-Indo-European *aug- "to increase". The Middle English form is eek. In Modern English also.

Engelond: From Old English Engla land, lit. "the land of the Angles". The Middle English form is Engelond, and the Modern English form is England.

Erys: From Old English eare, from Proto-Germanic *auzon (compare with Danish øre, German ohr and Gothic auso), from Proto-Indo-European *aus- with a sense of “perception” (compare with Greek aus, Latin auris and Lithuanian ausis). The Modern English form is ear.

Every: From Old English æfre ælc "each of a group," lit. "ever each" (Chaucer's everich) with ever added for emphasis, as the word is still felt to need emphasis (Modern English every last ..., every single ..., etc.). The Middle English form is every. In Modern English every.

exemple: 1382, Latin-zed refashioning of earlier essample, from Old Frisian essample, from L. exemplum "a sample," lit. "that which is taken out," from eximere "take out, remove". Oldest Eng. senses are of "behavior" and "punishment." The Middle English form is exemple, and the Modern English form is example.

expert: From Latin expertus, pp. of experiri "to try, test" .The n. sense of "person wise through experience" existed 15c., reappeared 1825. Expertise (1868) is from Fr. expertise "expert appraisal, expert's report." The Middle English form is expert, as in Modern English.

Fair, faire: From Old English fæger "beautiful, pleasant," from P.Gmc. *fagraz (cf. O.N. fagr, O.H.G. fagar "beautiful," Goth. fagrs "fit"), from PIE *fag-. The Middle English form, and the Modern English form is fair.

For: From Old English for "for, before, on account of," from Proto Germanic *fura (compare with Old Saxon furi, Dutch voor "for, before;" German für "for;" Danish for "for," før "before;" Gothic faur "for," faura "before"). A common prefix in Old English., where it could be intensive, destructive, or perfective. Its use alone as a conjunction (not found before 12c.) is probably a shortening of common Old English phrases. The Middle English form is for. In Modern English for.

Forneys: From Old French fornais, Latin fornacem “an oven”, related to fornus “oven”. The Middle English for is forneys and the Modern English form appeared around 1225 as furnace.
Fox: From Old English fox, from West Germanic *fukhs (compare with Old High German fuhs, Old Norse foa, Gothic fauho), from Proto-Germanic base *fuh-, corresponding to Proto-Indo-European *puk- “tail”. The Middle English and the Modern English forms are identical, both are fox.

Ful: From Old English full "completely, full," from Proto Germanic *fullaz (compare with Old Frisian ful, Old Norse fullr, Old High German fol, German voll, Gothic fulls), from Proto-Indo-European *ple- .Adverbial sense was common in Middle English (full well, full many, etc.). The Middle English form is ful. . In Modern English full.

Gentil: From Old French gentil "high-born, noble," from L. gentilis "of the same family or clan," from gens (gen. gentis) "race, clan," from root of gignere "beget"; from PIE base *gen- "produce." Sense of "gracious, kind" (now obsolete) first recorded c.1280; that of "mild, tender" is 1552. Older sense remains in gentleman "well-born man" (c.1275). Gentleman's agreement is first attested 1929. The Middle English form is gentil, and the Modern English form is gentle, but nowadays it is considered as an archaic form and it has been replaced by the word noble, for example.

God: From Old English god. From Proto Germanic *guthan (compare with Dutch god, German Gott, Old Norse guð, Gothic guþ), from Proto-Indo-European *ghut-. The Middle English form is god. In Modern English god.

Gold: From Old English gold, from Proto-Germanic *gulth- (compare with Old Frisian, Old High German gold, German gold, Middle Dutch gout, Dutch goud, Old Norse gull, Danish guld and Gothic goth), from Proto-Indo-European base *ghel- / *ghol- meaning “yellow, green”. The Middle English spelling and the Modern English spelling are identical, as it was in Old English, so this word has remained untouched, maybe due to the little variation that we can notice between the different Germanic languages.

Goliardeys: From Anglo-French golïardois. In Modern English this word has disappeared, and we use “buffon”.

Good: From Old English god, from Proto-Germanic *gothaz (compare with Old Norse goðr, Dutch goed, German gut, Gothic goþs), from Proto-Indo-European base *ghedh-, (compare with Old Curch Slavonic godu "pleasing time," Russian godnyi "fit, suitable," Old English gædrian "to gather, to take up together"). Irregular comparatives (better, best). The Middle English form is good. In Modern English good.

Grace: "God's favor or help," from Old French grace "pleasing quality, favor, good will, thanks," from Latin gratia "pleasing quality, good will, gratitude," from gratus "pleasing, agreeable," from PIE base *gwer- "to praise, welcome" (cf. Skt. grnati "sings, praises, announces," Lith. giriu "to praise, celebrate," Avestan gar- "to praise"). The Middle English and the Modern English form is also grace.

Greet: From Old English great, meaning “big, coarse, stout”, from West Germanic *grautaz (compare with Old Saxon grot, Old Frisian grat, Dutch groot and German groβ). The Modern English form is great.

Hade, hadde: From Old English habban “to own, posses”, from Proto-Germanic *khaf- (compare with Old Norse hafa, Old Saxon hebbjan, Old Frisian habba, German haben and Gothic haban), from Proto-Indo-European *kap- meaning “to grasp”. It is not related to Latin habere, despite similarity in form and sense. The past participle and past tense of the verb in Middle English (hade, hadde) derives from Old English gehaefd, haefde, or haefđ, developing in hath and hade. The Modern English form is the result of the suppression of the final unstressed –e- (had).

Harlotries: From Harlot.

Have: From Old English habban “to own, posses”, from Proto-Germanic *khaf- (compare with Old Norse hafa, Old Saxon hebbjan, Old Frisian habba, German haben and Gothic haban), from Proto-Indo-European *kap- meaning “to grasp”. It is not related to Latin habere, despite similarity in form and sense. The Old English –bb- becomes –v- in Middle and Modern English. The verb was used as an auxiliary in Old English, too, to form present and perfect tenses (for example: wolde have). The Modern form is identical to the Middle English form.

He: From Old English he (third person pronoun), from Proto-Germanic *hiz, from the Proto-Germanic base *khi-, from Proto-Indo-European *ki- root, meaning “this, here”. The Middle English form was he, but we can find other forms as e, a, ho, heo, hie (early) and hæ, hi, hei in the South East. The Modern English form is he.

Heed: From Old English heafod, from Proto-Germanic *khaubuthan (Old Saxon hobid, Old Norse hofuđ, German haupt), from Proto-Indo-European *kauput- “head” (Latin caput). The Modern spelling (head) dates from c. 1420, representing what was then a long vowel (simplification of the vowel sound).

Heep: From Old English heap "pile, great number, multitude," from W.Gmc. *khaupaz (cf. O.S. hop, M.L.G. hupe, Du. hoop, Ger. Haufe "heap"), probably related to O.E. heah "high." The verb is from O.E. heapian. The Middle English form is heep, and the Modern English form is heap.

Herte: From Old English heorte, from Proto Germanic *khertan- (compare with Old Saxon herta, Old Norse hjarta, Dutch hart, Old High German herza, German Herz, Gothic hairto), from Proto-Indo-European *kerd- "heart". The Middle English form is herte. In Modern English heart.

Herys: From Old English haer, from Proto-Germanic *khæran (compare with Old Norse, Old Saxon and Old High German har, Old Frisian her, Dutch and German haar), from Proto-Indo-European *ker(s)- meaning “to bristle”. In Middle English it was hery. The Modern spelling “hair” is influenced by the Old English haire “haircloth”, from Old French haire.

Him: From Old English him, originally dative masculine and neuter of he; beginning 10c. it replaced hine as masculine accusative, a regional process completed by 15c. The dative roots of the -m ending are retained in German (ihm) and Dutch (hem). Hine persists, barely, as the southern England dialectal 'un, 'n for “him”. The Middle English form is him. . In Modern English him.

Hire: From Old English hyrian "pay for service, employ for wages, engage," from Proto Germanic *khurja (compare with Danish hyre, Old Frisian hera, Dutch huren, German heuern "to hire, rent”). The Middle English form is hire. In Modern English payment.
His: From Old English his (genitive of he), from Proto-Germanic *khisa (compare with Gothic is, Germanic es). It was replaced as neuter pronoun in c. 1600 by its. The Middle English form is his, as in Modern English (possessive pronoun, adjective).

Hood: From Old English hod, from Proto-Germanic *khodaz (compare with Old Frisian hod, Middle Dutch hoet, German hut “hat”, Old Frisian hode “guard, protect”), from Proto-Indo-European *kadh-, meaning “cover”. The Late Middle English and Modern spelling dates from the early 1400s, used to indicate a long vowel, which is no longer pronounced as such (hood).

Hoole: From Old English hal "entire, unhurt, healthy," from Proto Germanic *khailaz "undamaged" (compare with Old Saxon hel, Old Norse heill, Old Frisian hal, Middle Dutch hiel, Dutch heel, Old High German, German heil "salvation, welfare"), from Proto-Indo-European *koilas. The Middle English form is hoole. . In Modern English whole.

hous: From Old English hus "dwelling, shelter, house," from Proto-Germanic *khusan (cf. O.N., O.Fris. hus, Du. huis, Ger. Haus), of unknown origin, perhaps connected to the root of hide (v.). In Goth. only in gudhus "temple," lit. "god-house;" the usual word for "house" in Goth. being razn. The Middle English form is hous, and the Modern English form is house.

Hymselve: From Old English him, originally dative and neuter of he, at 10c. it replaced hine as masculine accusative + Old English self, seolf, sylf, meaning “one’s own person, same”, from Proto-Germanic *selbaz, from Proto-Indo-European *sel-bho.

If: From Old English gif ,from Proto Germanic *ja-ba (compare with Old Norse ef, Old Frisian gef, Old High German ibu, German ob, Dutch of). The Middle English form is if. . In Modern English if.

In: From Old English in "in," inne "within," from Proto Germanic. *in (compare with Old Frisian, Dutch, German, Gothic in, Old Norse i), from Proto-Indo-European *en-/*n (compare with Greek en, Latin in, Old Irish in, Welsh yn-, Old Church Slavonic on-). The Middle English form is in. In Modern English in.

It: From Old English hit, neuter nominative and accusative of third person singular pronoun, from Proto-Germanic demonstrative base *khi- (compare with Old Frisian hit, Dutch het, Gothic hita). The h- was lost due to being in an unstressed position, as in the modern speech. In the Late Middle English period and in Modern English, the pronoun was (or is) it.

Janglere: From Old French janglëor, -our, ganglëor. It developed to janglere in Middle English and now it is obsolete and has disappeared. In Modern English the forms with the same meaning are different: “talker, gossip, etc”.

Knarre: From Old English cnear or Middle Dutch/ Middle Low German knoree. The Modern form of the word is knar, but it is not used today.

Koude: From Old English cuđe, the past form of the verb cunnan “to be able”. It changed to -d(e) ending in the 14th century ( during the Middle English period), and the letter -l- was added during the 16th century (Early Modern English). The Modern English form is could, with the -d ending and the letter -l-, and the common variation of the letter k- to letter c-.

lawe: From Old English lagu (pl. laga, comb. form lah-), from O.N. *lagu "law," collective pl. of lag "layer, measure, stroke," lit. "something laid down or fixed," from P.Gmc. *lagan "put, lay"). Replaced O.E. æ and gesetnes, which had the same sense development as law. Cf. also statute, from L. statuere, Ger. Gesetz "law," from O.H.G. gisatzida, Lith. istatymas, from istatyti "set up, establish." The Middle English form is lawe, and the Modern English form is law.

Lay: From Old English lecgan "to place on the ground " also "put down (often by striking)," from Proto Germanic *lagjanan (compare with Old Saxon leggian, Old Norse leggja, Old Frisian ledza, Middle Dutch legghan, Dutch leggen, Old High German lecken, German legen, Gothic lagjan "to lay, put, place"). The Middle English form is lay. In Modern English lay.

Lerned: past participle of the Old English form leornian "to get knowledge, be cultivated," from P.Gmc. *liznojan (cf. O.Fris. lernia, O.H.G. lernen, Ger. lernen "to learn," Goth. lais "I know), with a base sense of "to follow or find the track," from PIE *leis- "track." Related to Ger. Gleis "track," and to O.E. læst "sole of the foot". The Middle English form is lerned, and the Modern English form is learned.

Lewed: From Old English læwede "nonclerical," of uncertain origin but probably ult. from V.L. *laigo-, from L. laicus. Sense of "unlettered, uneducated" (1225) descended to "coarse, vile, lustful" by 1386. The Middle English form is lewed, and the Modern English form is lewd.

Lond: "to bring to land," from Old English land (n.). Originally of ships; of fish, in the angling sense, from 1613; hence fig. sense of "to obtain" (a job, etc.), first recorded 1854. Of aircraft, attested from 1916. The Middle English form is lond, and the Modern English form is land.

Lord: From Old English hlaford "master of a household, ruler, superior,". The Middle English form is lord, as in modern English.

Loved: From Old English lufian, from Proto Germanic *lubojanan. The Middle English form is loved. In Modern English loved.

Lyvynge: From Old English lifian (Anglian), libban (West Saxon) "to be alive," also "to supply oneself with food, to pass life (in some condition)," from Proto Germanic stem *libæ (compare with Old Norse lifa, Old Frisian libba, German leben, Gothic liban "to live"), from Proto-Indo-European base *leip- "to remain, continue" (compare with Greek liparein "to persist, persevere;"). The Middle English form is lyvynge. In Modern English living.

Maistres: From Old English mægester "one having control or authority," from Latin magister "chief, head, director, teacher" (compare with O.Fr. maistre, Fr. maître, It. maestro, Ger. Meister), infl. in Middle English by O.Fr. maistre, from L. magister, contrastive adj. from magis (adv.) "more," itself a comp. of magnus "great." The verb is attested from c.1225. The Modern English form is master.

mannes: From Old English man, mann "human being, person," from Proto-Germanic *manwaz (cf. O.S., O.H.G. man, Ger. Mann, O.N. maðr, Goth. manna "man"), from PIE base *man- (cf. Skt. manuh, Avestan manu-, O.C.S. mozi, Rus. muzh "man, male"). Sometimes connected to root *men- "to think", which would make the ground sense of man "one who has intelligence," but not all linguists accept this. Plural men (Ger. Männer) shows effects of i-mutation. Sense of "adult male" is late (c.1000); O.E. used wer and wif to distinguish the sexes, but wer began to disappear late 13c. and was replaced by man. Similarly, Latin had homo "human being" and vir "adult male human being," The Middle English form is man, the same form as in Modern English.

Maunciple: "officer or servant who purchases provisions for a college, monastery, etc.," c.1225, from Latin mancipium, from manus "hand". The Middle English form is maunciple. In Modern English manciple.

Mere: From Old English mere (Mercian), myre (West Saxon), female of Old English mearh "horse," from Proto Germanic *markhjon (compare with Old Saxon meriha, Old Norse merr, Old Frisian merrie, German Mähre "mare"), said to be of Gaulish origin (compare with Irish and Gaelic marc, Welsh march, Bret. marh "horse"). It is attested from 1602he . The Middle English form is mere. In Modern English mare.

Millere: 1362 (attested as a surname from 1327), from mill. From Old English mylnweard, lit. "mill-keeper" (Millward attested as a surname from 1279). The Middle English form is millere. In Modern English miller.

Mo: From Old English mara (adj.) "greater, more," used as a comp. of micel "great", from Proto-Germanic *maizon (cf. O.S. mera, O.N. meiri, O.Fris. mara, M.Du. mere, O.H.G. mero, Ger. mehr), from PIE *meis (cf. Avestan mazja "greater," O.Ir. mor "great," Gk. -moros "great," Oscan mais "more"). O.E. used related ma "more" as adv., n., from P.Gmc. *mais; this became Middle English mo, but more in this sense began to predominate in later Modern English.

Moost: From Old English mat, earlier maest, from Proto-Germanic *maistaz (compare to Old Saxon mest, Old Norse mestr, German meist). It was used in Old English as a superlative of micel meaning “great, large”. In Modern English, most is the demonstrative pronoun used as the superlative of much, a lot of and many.

Mouth: From Old English muþ, from Proto-Germanic *munthaz (compare with Old Frisian muth, Old Norse munnr, Middle Dutch mont, German mund). The Modern English form is identical to the Middle English one, mouth.

Myght: From Old English miht, earlier mæht, from Proto Germanic.*makhtuz (compare with Old Norse mattr, Old Frisian, Middle Dutch macht, German Macht, Gothic mahts), from Proto-Indo-European base *mag- "be able, have power". The Middle English form is myght. In Modern English power.

Myghte: From Old English mihte, meahte, originally the past tense of may (Old English magen "to be able") The first record of might-have-been is from 1848. The Middle English form is myghte, and the Modern English form is might.

Myself: From Old English, from phrase ic me self, where me is "a kind of ethical dative" [OED], altered in Middle Ages from meself on analogy of herself, with her- felt as gen.; though analogous hisself remains bad form. The Middle English form is myself. In Modern English myself.

Nat: negative particle, c.1250, unstressed variant of Old English noht, naht "in no way". The Middle English form is nat, and the Modern English form is not.

Neighebor: From Old English neahgebur (West Saxon), nehebur (Anglian), from neah "near"(see nigh) + gebur "dweller," related to bur "dwelling". Common Germanic compound (compare with Dutch (na)bur, Old High German nahgibur, Middle High German nachgebur, German Nachbar). The verb is first attested in 1586. The Middle English form is neighebor. In Modern English neighbor.

No: c. 1225, from Old English na (adverb), the mixture of ne (not) and a (ever), from Proto-Germanic *ne (Old Norse, Old Frisian, Old high German ne, Gothic ni), from Proto-Indo-European base *ne- “no, not”. In Modern English, not is used to form the negative, is a particle used for negation.

Nolde: mixture of wolde + not

Nose: From Old English nosu, from Proto-Germanic *nusus (compare with Old Norse nös, Old Frisian nose, Dutch neus, Old High German nasa, German nase), from Proto-Indo-European *nas- (Sanskrit nasa, and Latin nasus). The Middle English form and the Modern one are identical.

Nosethirles: From Old English nosþyrl, literally “the hole of the nose”, from nosu “nose” + þyrel “hole”. The Modern English form is nostrils.

Now: Old English nu, common Gmc. (compare with O.N. nu, Du. nu, O.Fris. nu, Ger. nun, Goth. nu "now"), from PIE *nu (cf. Skt., Avestan nu, O.Pers. nuram, Hittite nuwa, Gk. nu, nun, L. nunc, O.C.S. nyne, Lith. nu, O.Ir. nu-). Often merely emphatic; non-temporal usage (cf. Now, then) was in O.E. The Middle English form and the Modern English form is also now.

Of: From Old English of, unstressed form of æf (preposition, adverb), meaning “away, away from”, from Proto Germanic *af- (compare with Old Norse af, Old Frisian af/ of, Dutch af and German ab), from Proto-Indo-European *apo- meaning “off, away”. In Middle English, as in Modern English, of is a preposition which expresses property, position, construction, opinion etc “belonging to, consisting of, coming from, etc”.

Or: c. 1200 from Old English conjunction oþþe “either, or”, related to Old Norse eđa, Old High German odar, German oder and Gothic aiþþau meaning “or”. It was extended in the Earlier Middle English with a final -r, reduced to oþþor (by 1300) and finally reduced to or, as in Modern English.

Out: Old English ut, common Gmc. (cf. O.N., O.Fris., Goth. ut, Du. uit, Ger. aus), from PIE base *ud- "up, up away" (cf. Skt. ut "up, out," uttarah "higher, upper, later, northern;" Avestan uz- "up, out," O.Ir. ud- "out," L. usque "all the way to, without interruption," Gk. hysteros "the latter," Rus. vy- "out"). The Middle English form was out, the same as in Modern English.

Over: From Old English ofer, from Proto Germanic *uberi (compare with Old Saxon obar, Old Frisian over, Old Norse yfir, Old High German ubar, German über, Gothic ufar "over, above"), from Proto-Indo-European *uper . Widely used as a prefix in Old English and other Germanic languages. The Middle English form is over. In Modern English over.

Pace: From Old French pas, from Latin passus "a step," lit. pp. of pandere "to stretch (the leg), spread out," from PIE *pat-no-, from base *pete- "to spread" (cf. Gk. petalon "a leaf," O.E. fæðm "embrace, bosom, fathom"). The verb is first attested 1513, from the noun. The Middle English form is pace, as in Modern English.

Pardee: From Anglo-French par Dé. It is an archaic word used in the 14the century, which is now replaced by “indeed” (Modern English) or the literal translation “by God”.

Pardoner: From Old French pardonner "to grant, forgive," from Vulgar Latin *perdonare "to give wholeheartedly, to remit," from Latin per- "through, thoroughly" + donare "give, present." A pardoner (1362) was a man licensed to sell papal pardons or indulgences. The Middle English form is pardoner. In Modern English pardoner.

Parfit: c.1225 (implied in perfectiun), from Old French parfit (11c.), from Latin perfectus "completed," pp. of perficere "accomplish, finish, complete," from per- "completely" + facere "to perform". Often used in Eng. as an intensive (perfect stranger, etc.). The Middle English form is parfit. In Modern English perfect.

Payde: past tense of the verb pay. c.1200, "to appease, pacify, satisfy," from Old French paiier (12c.), from L. pacare "to please, pacify, satisfy" (especially a creditor), from pax (gen. pacis) "peace." Meaning "to give what is due for goods or services" arose in Middle Latin., and was attested in English by c.1225; sense of "please, pacify" died out in English by 1500. Sense of "suffer, endure" (a punishment, etc.) is first recorded 1387. The Middle English form is payde, and the Modern English form is paid.

Pees: 1140, "freedom from civil disorder," from Anglo-Norman pes, from Old French pais (11c., French paix), from Latin pacem (nom. pax) "treaty of peace, tranquility, absence of war" (compare with Provençal patz, Spanish paz, Italian pace), from Proto-Indo-European *pak- "fasten," related to pacisci "to covenant or agree". Replaced Old English frið, also sibb, which also meant "happiness." Modern spelling is 1500s, reflecting vowel shift. The Middle English form is pees. In Modern English peace.

Pipe: From Old English pipe "musical wind instrument,". The verb sense of "to play on a pipe" is from Old English pipian; the meaning "convey through pipes" is first recorded 1889.A pipe dream (1896) is the sort of improbably fantasy one has while smoking opium. Piping hot is in Chaucer, a reference to hissing of food in a frying pan; to pipe up (c.1425) originally meant "to begin to play" (on a musical instrument). Pipe down "be quiet" first recorded 1900. The Middle English form is pipe, as in Modern English.

Povre: c.1200, from Old French poure (French pauvre), from Latin pauper "poor," perhaps a compound of paucus "little" and parare "to get." Replaced Old English earm. The Middle English form is povre. In Modern English poor.

Propre: c.1225, "adapted to some purpose, fit, apt" (implied in properly), from Old French propre (11c.), from Latin proprius "one's own, particular to itself," from pro privo "for the individual." The Middle English form is proper. In Modern English own.

Proved: c.1175, prouwe, from Old French prover (11c.), from Latin probare "to test, prove worthy," from probus "worthy, good, upright, virtuous," from Proto-Indo-European *pro-bhwo- "being in front," from *pro-, extended form of base *per-, + base *bhu- "to be" (compare with Latin fui "I have been," futurus "about to be;" Old English beon "to be;"). The Middle English form is proved. . In Modern English proved.

Ram: From Old English ramm “male sheep”, a West Germanic word (compare with Middle Low German, Middle Dutch, Dutch and Old High German ram). Perhaps it is connected with Old Norse rammr “strong”. The Modern English word has not changed in its form: ram.

Reed: From Old English hreod “reed”, from Proto-Germanic *khreudom (compare with Old Saxon hraid, Old Frisian hriad, Middel Dutch ried, Old High German hriot and German riet). The Middle English form is reed, and the Modern English form has suffered a reduction of vowels, resulting as red.

Rennyng: the Modern verb (to run) probably came from the Old English word rinnan, irnan (strong verb, past ran, past participle runnen), from Proto-Germanic *renwanan (Middle Dutch runnen, Old Saxon, Old High German, Gothic rinnan, German rinnen), from Proto-Indo-European base *ren- “to run”.

Rente: "payment for use of property," 1137, from Old French rente, from V.L. *rendita, prop. fem. pp. of rendere "to render". The verb is attested from 1362, from the noun. The Middle English form is rente, and the Modern English form is rent.

Reve: From Old English gerefa, of unknown origin and with no known cognates. Not connected to German Graf . An Anglo-Saxon official of high rank, having local jurisdiction under a king. The Middle English form is reve. In Modern English reeve.

Right: From Old English riht “just, good, fair, proper, fitting, straight”, from Proto-Germanic *rekhtaz (compare with Old High German reht, German recht, Old Norse rettr), from Proto-Indo-European base *reg- meaning “move in a straight line”. In Latin rectus. The Middle English and the Modern English forms are identical, meaning “morally good, true, correct, exactly, immediately, etc”.

Rood: From Old English ridan "ride" (as on horseback), "move forward, rock" (class I strong verb; past tense rad, pp. riden), from Proto Germanic *ridanan (compare with Old Norse riða, Old Frisian rida, Middle Dutch riden, German reiten), from Proto-Indo-European *reidh- "to ride". The Middle English form is rood. In Modern English rode.

Sake: From Old English sacu "a cause at law, crime, dispute, guilt," from Proto Germanic *sako "affair, thing, charge, accusation" (compare with Old Norse sök "charge, lawsuit, effect, cause," Old Frisian seke "strife, dispute, matter, thing," Dutch zaak, German sache "thing, matter, affair, cause"), from Proto-Indo-European base *sag- "to investigate". The Middle English form is sake. . In Modern English sake.

Shal: From Old English sceal "I owe/he owes, will have to, ought to, must" (infinitive sculan, pt. sceolde), a common Gmc. preterite-present verb, from Proto-Germanic *skal-, *skul- (compare with O.S. sculan, O.N., Swed. skola, M.Du. sullen, O.H.G. solan, Ger. sollen, Goth. skulan "to owe, be under obligation;" related via past tense form to O.E. scyld "guilt," Ger. Schuld "guilt, debt;" also O.N. Skuld, name of one of the Norns). Ground sense probably is "I owe," hence "I ought." The sense shifted in Middle English from a notion of "obligation" to include "futurity." Its past tense form has become should (q.v.). Cognates outside Germanic are Lith. skeleti "to be guilty," skilti "to get into debt;" O.Prus. skallisnan "duty," skellants "guilty." The Middle English form is shal, ande the Modern English form is shall.

Short: From Old English sceort, scort, probably from Proto-Germanic *skurte (compare with Old Norse skorta, Old High German scurz), from Proto-Indo-European base *sker- “to cut”. The Middle English form and the Modern one are identical.

Smerte: From Old English smeortan "be painful," from West Germanic *smert- (compare with Middle Dutch smerten, Dutch smarten, Old High German smerzan, German schmerzen "to pain," originally "to bite"), from Proto-Indo-European base *(s)merd-, from base *(s)mer- "to rub, pound". The Middle English form is smerte. In Modern English pained.

So: From Old English swa, swæ "in this way," from Proto-Germanic *swa (cf. O.S., M.Du., O.H.G. so, O.N. sva, Dan. saa, Swed. sa, O.Fris. sa, Du. zo, Ger. so "so," Goth. swa "as"), from PIE reflexive pronomial stem *s(w)o- (cf. Gk. hos "as," O.Latin suad "so," L. se "himself. The Middle English and the Modern English forms are so.

Somnour: c.1205, from Anglo-French, Old French sumundre "summon," from Vulgar Latin *summundre "to call, cite," from Latin summonere "hint to," from sub "under" + monere "warn, advise".. Summoner "petty officer who cites persons to appear in court" is from c.1325; contracted form sumner is from 1362. The Middle English form is somnour. In Modern English summoner.

Sowe: From Old English sugu, su “female of the swine”, from Proto-Germanic *sugo (compare with Old Saxon and Old High German su, German sau, Dutch zeug, Old Norse syr), from Proto-Indo-European base *su- (Greek hys, Latin sus). The Middle English form is sowe, and the Modern English form is sow.

Sowne: from Old French sonder, compare with Old English sundgyrd (“‘a sounding rod’”), sundline (“‘a sounding line’’”). The Middle English form is sounden, and the Modern English form is sound.

Spade: From Old English spadu, from Proto-Germanic *spadon (compare with Old Frisian spada, Middle Dutch spade, Old Saxon spado, Middle Low German spade, German spaten), from Proto-Indo-European *spe- “long, flat piece of wood” (Greek spather, Old English spon and Old Norse span). The Middle English and the Modern English forms are identical “spade”.

Staat: c.1225, "circumstances, temporary attributes of a person or thing, conditions," from Latin status "manner of standing, position, condition," noun of action from pp. stem of stare "to stand" from PIE base *sta- "to stand". Some Middle English senses are via Old French estat. The Latin word was adopted into other modern Germanic languages (e.g. Ger., Du. staat) but chiefly in the political senses only. The Middle English word is staat, and the Modern English word is state.

Stelen: From Old English stelan, meaning “to commit a theft” (class IV strong verb, past tense stæl, past participle stolen), from Proto-Germanic *stelanan (compare with Old Saxon stelan, Old Norse and Old Frisian stela, Dutch stelan, German stehlen and Gothic stilan). The Middle English infinitive form of the verb is stelen. The Modern English form of the verb is steal (past stole, past participle stolen).

Stood: From Old English standan (class VI strong verb, past tense stod, past participle standen), from Proto-Germanic *sta-n-d-, from Proto-Indo-European base *sta- meaning “to stand”. In Middle English the verb form was stoden (stood is the past tense), and in Modern English the verb form is stand (stood is the past and past participle form).

Stout: c.1300, "proud, valiant, strong," from Old French estout "brave, fierce, proud," earlier estolt "strong," from West Germanic *stult- "proud, stately" (compare with Middle Low German stolt "stately, proud," German stolz "proud, haughty, arrogant, stately"), from Proto-Indo-European base *stel- "to put, stand." The Middle English form is stout. In Modern English stout.

Stywardes: From Old English stiward, stigweard "house guardian," from stig "hall, pen" + weard "guard." Used after the Conquest as the equivalent of O.Fr. seneschal (q.v.). The Middle English form is styward, and the Modern English form is steward.

Swerd: From Old English sweord, from Proto-Germanic *swerdan (compare with Old Saxon and Old Frisian swed, Old Norse sverđ, Swedish svärd, Dutch zwaard, Old High German swert and German schwert), from Proto-Indo-European base *swerd- meaning “to cut”. The Modern English form is sword “a weapon of metal blade and handle”.

swich: From Old English swylc, swilc from a Proto-Germanic compound *swalikaz "so formed" (cf. O.S. sulik, O.N. slikr, O.Fris. selik, M.Du. selc, Du. zulk, O.H.G. sulih, Ger. solch, Goth. swaleiks), from swa "so" + *likan "form," source of O.E. gelic "similar"). Colloquial suchlike (1422) is pleonastic.

Swynk: probably from Old High German swingan, meaning “to swing”.

Syde: From Old English side meaning “flanks of a person, the long part or aspect of anything”, from Proto-Germanic *sithon (compare with Old Saxon side, Old Norse siđa, Middle Dutch side and Old High German sita). The Modern English form has suffered a change of vowel, from syde (Middle English) to side.

Synne: From Old English synn, meaning “moral wrongdoing, offense against God, misdeed”, from Proto-Germanic *sundjo (compare to Old Saxon sundia, Old Frisian sende, Middle Dutch sonde and German sunde). In Modern English, the form is sin.

Tabard: 1253, from early Spanish tabardo and from Old French tabart (12c.), of unknown origin. Originally a coarse, sleeveless upper garment worn by peasants, later a knight's surcoat (hence the name of the tavern in "Canterbury Tales”). The Middle English form is tabard. In Modern English tabard.

taille: in Chaucer’s General Prologue, it comes from the expression by taille, and it could be translated in Modern English as on credit.

take: From late Old English tacan, from a N.Gmc. source (e.g. O.N. taka "take, grasp, lay hold," past tense tok, pp. tekinn; Swed. ta, pp. tagit), from P.Gmc. *tækanan (cf. M.L.G. tacken, M.Du. taken, Goth. tekan "to touch"), of uncertain origin, perhaps originally meaning "to touch." Gradually replaced Middle English nimen as the verb for "to take," from O.E. niman, from the usual W.Gmc. *nem- root (cf. Ger. nehmen, Du. nemen), also of unknown origin. The Modern English form is also take.

Temple: "building for worship," from Old English tempel, from Latin templum "piece of ground consecrated for the taking of auspices, building for worship," of uncertain signification. Commonly referred either to PIE base *tem- "to cut," on notion of "place reserved or cut out," or to PIE base *temp- "to stretch," on notion of cleared space in front of an altar. The Modern English form is identical: temple.

ten: From Old English ten (Mercian), tien (W.Saxon), from Proto-Germanic *tekhan (cf. O.S. tehan, O.N. tiu, Dan. ti, O.Fris. tian, O.Du. ten, Du. tien, O.H.G. zehan, Ger. zehn, Goth. taihun "ten"), from PIE *dekm (cf. Skt. dasa, Avestan dasa, Armenian tasn, Gk. deka, L. decem, O.C.S. deseti, Lith. desimt, O.Ir. deich, Bret. dek, Welsh deg, Alb. djetu "ten"). Tenth is O.E. teoða, teogoða. The Middle English form is ten, as in Modern English.


Thanne: adverb of time. From Old English þanne, þænne, þonne, from Proto Germanic *thana- (compare with Old Frisian thenne, Old Saxon thanna, Dutch dan, Old High German danne, German dann), from Proto-Indo-European demonstrative pronoun root *to- . The Middle English form is thanne. In Modern English then.

That: From Old English þaet, neuter singular of the demonstrative pronoun and adjective (masculine se, feminine seo), from Proto-Germanic *that. The Modern English form is identical to the Middle English form.



The: From Late Old English þe, nominative masculine form of the demonstrative pronoun and adjective. After c. 950, it replaced the earlier se (masculine), seo (feminine), and þaet (neuter) used in the Earlier Old English. Old English se is from the Proto-Indo-European base *so- meaning “this, that”, and the Old English used ten different words for “the” but did not distinguish “the” from “that”. The Middle English form remains equal in the modern language.

Ther: From Old English þær “in or that place”, from Proto-Germanic *thaer (compare with Old Saxon thar, Old Frisian ther, Middle Low German dar, Middle Dutch daer, Dutch daar, German da), from Proto-Indo-European *tar- “there”. The Modern English form is there, but the pronunciation remains identical to Middle English.

Theron: From Old English þæron (þær+on).
Þær: Old English þær meant “in or at that place”, from Proto-Germanic *thaer (compare with Old Saxon thar, Old Frisian ther, Middle Low German dar, Middle Dutch daer, Dutch daar, Old High German dar, German da, Gothic þar), from Proto-Indo-European *tar- meaning “there”.
On: From Old English on, unstressed variant of an meaning “in, on, into”, from Proto-Germanic (compare with Dutch aan, German an, Gothic ana), from Proto-Indo-European base *ano (Greek ana, Latin an).
The Middle English form theron developed to thereon in Modern English.

Therwithal : from the combination of with + that. "in addition," 1393, from Middle English with alle (c.1200), superseding O.E. mid ealle "wholly".

Thikke: From Old English picce, meaning “dense”, from Proto-Germanic *theku-, *thekwia (compare with Old Saxon thikki, Old High German dicchi, German dick), from Proto-Indo-European *tegu- “thick”. The Modern form of the word is thick.

Thombe: From Anglo-French tumbe, Old French tombe (12the century), from Late Latin tumba (compare with Italian tomba, French tombe and Spanish tumba), from Greek tymbos, from Proto-Indo-European base *teu- meaning “to swell”. The final -b- began to be silent in the 14th century, as it is today. The Modern spelling is tomb (c. 1275).

Though: c. 1200, from Old English þeah, and in part from Old Norse þo, meaning “though”, both from Proto-Germanic *thaukh (compare with Gothic þauh, Old Frisian thach, Middle Dutch and Dutch doch, Old High German doh and German doch). The Middle English form and the Modern English form are identical (“though”), and it is used in the text with the conjunction as, with the same meaning.

Thresshe: From Old English þrescan, þerscan "to beat, sift grain by trampling or beating," from Proto Germanic *threskanan "to thresh," originally "to tread, to stamp noisily" (compare with Middle Dutch derschen, Dutch dorschen, Old High German dreskan, German dreschen, Old Norse þreskja, Gothic þriskan), from Proto-Indo-European base *tere- "to rub, turn". The Middle English form is thresshe. In Modern English thresh.

Thries: From Old English þreo, feminine and neuter (masculine þri, þrie), from Proto-Germanic *thrijiz (compare with Old Frisian thre, Middle Dutch and Dutch drie, Old High German dri, German drei, Old Norse þrir and Danish tre), from Proto-Indo-European *trejes (Greek treis, Latin tres and Irish and Welsh three). The Middle English form is a variation of the Old English form changing the thorn letter by th-, whereas the Modern English form has changed the spelling but not the pronunciation.

Tithes: From Old English teogoþa (Anglian), teoþa (West Saxon) "tenth," from Proto Germanic *tegunthon, *tekhunthon. Retained in ecclesiastical sense while the form was replaced in ordinal use by tenth (influenced by ten). The Middle English form is tithes. In Modern English tithes.

Toft: Perhaps from Old French touffe “tuft of hairs”, either from Late Latin tufa “a kind of crest on a helmet” (Greek toupha), or from Germanic source (compare with Old High German zopf, Old Norse toppr). The Modern English form is tuf (c. 1386).

Tollen: From Old English tellan (weak verb, past tealde, past participle geteald), meaning “to reckon, calculate, consider, account”, from Proto-Germanic *taljanan (Old Saxon tellian, Old Norse telja, Old Frisian tella “to tell”, Dutch tellen, Danish tale “to speak”), from base *talo. The Middle English infinitive form of the verb was tollen (past and past participle tolled), and the Modern English form is tell (past and past participle told).

Took: past tense of take, from late Old English toc, past tense of tacan. The Middle English form is took, as in Modern English.

Towne: Old English tun "enclosure, enclosed land with buildings," later "village," from Proto-Germanic *tunaz, *tunan (compare with O.S., O.N., O.Fris. tun "fence, hedge," M.Du. tuun "fence," Du. tuin "garden," O.H.G. zun, Ger. Zaun "fence, hedge"), an early borrowing from Celtic *dunom (cf. O.Ir. dun, Welsh din "fortress, fortified place, camp. The Middle English form is towne, and the Modern English form is town.

Trewe: From Old English triewe (West Saxon), treowe (Mercian) "faithful, trustworthy," from Proto-Germanic *trewwjaz, perhaps ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *dru-. The Middle English form is trewe. In Modern English true.

Tymes: From Old English tima, from Proto-Germanic *timon, meaning “time”, from Proto-Indo-European *di-mon, from base *da. The Modern English form is time.


Upon: c. 1121, from the combination of up+on, probably influenced by Old Norse upp a. Distinct from Old English uppan, which meant “up”.
Up: From Old English up, uppe, from Proto-Germanic *upp- meaning “up”, from Proto-Indo-European *upo meaning “up from below”.

On: From Old English on, unstressed variant of an meaning “in, on, into”, from Proto-Germanic (compare with Dutch aan, German an, Gothic ana), from Proto-Indo-European base *ano (Greek ana, Latin an).

Us : Old English us (cognate with O.S., O.Fris. us, O.N., Swed. oss), accusative and dative plural of we, from PIE *ns- (cf. Skt. nas, Avestan na, Hittite nash "us;" Gk. no "we two;" L. nos "we, us;" O.C.S. ny "us," nasu "our;" O.Ir. ni, Welsh ni "we, us"). The -n- is preserved in Gmc. in Du. ons, Ger. uns. The Middle English form is us, the same form as in Modern English.

Vitaille: c.1303, vitaylle (singular), from Anglo-French and Old-French vitaille, from L.L. victualia "provisions," noun use of plural of victualis "of nourishment," from victus "livelihood, food, sustenance," from base of vivere "to live". Spelling altered 1523 to conform with L., but pronunciation remains "vittles." The Middle English form is vitaille, and the Modern English form is victuals.

Was: From Old English wesan, wæs, wæron, the first and third person singular of wesan “to remain”, from Proto-Germanic *wesanan (compare with Old Saxon wesan, Old Norse vesa, Old Frisian wesa, Middle Dutch wesen, Dutch wezen, Old High German wesen and Gothic wisan, meaning “to be”), from the Proto-Indo-European base *wes- “remain, abide, dwell”. It came to supply the past tense of am, developing in Proto-Germanic. In Middle English, it is the first and third person singular of the past tense of the verb ben “to be”, as in Modern English.

wayted: c.1200, "to watch with hostile intent, lie in wait for," from O.N.Fr. waitier "to watch" (Fr. guetter), from Frank. *wahton (cf. Du. wacht "a watching," O.H.G. wahten, Ger. wachten "to watch, to guard;" O.H.G. wahhon "to watch, be awake," O.E. wacian "to be awake;" General sense of "remain in some place" is from 1375; meaning "serve as an attendant at a table" is from 1568. The noun is first attested c.1300. The Middle English form is wayted, and the Modern English form is waited.

Wel: From Old English wel, a common Germanic adverb (compare with Old Saxon wela, Old Norse vel, Old Frisian wel, Dutch wel, Old High German wela, German wohl and Gothic waila, meaning “well”), from Proto-Indo-European *wel-/ *wol-. It was also used as an interjection and an expression of surprise in Old English. The Modern spelling has changed; doubling the -l-, but the pronunciation remains the same.

Were: From Old English wæron (past plural indicative of wesan) and wære (second person singular past indicative). Wast (the second person singular) was formed in 1500s on analogy of be/beest. The Middle English form for the second person singular of the past tense and the plural of the verb be is were, as in Modern English.

Wered: From Old English werian (weak verb, past and past participle wered), meaning “to clothe, put on”, from Proto-Germanic *wazjanan (compare with Old Norse verja, Old High German werian), from Proto-Indo-European *wes-, meaning “to clothe”. During the Late Middle English (around the 14th century) it turned to be a strong verb (wear, past wore, past participle worn), the conjugation that has remained in Modern English.

Werte: From Old English wearte, from Proto-Germanic *warton- (compare with Old Norse varta, Old Frisian warte, Dutch wrat, Old High German warza and German warze, meaning “wart”). The Middle English form is werte, and the Modern English form is wart.

wheither: From Old English hwæðer, hweðer "which of two, whether," from Proto-Germanic *khwatharaz (compare with O.S. hwedar, O.N. hvarr, Goth. huaþar, O.H.G. hwedar "which of the two," Ger. weder "neither"), from interrogative base *khwa- "who" + comparative suffix *-theraz (cf. Skt. katarah, Avestan katara-, Gk. poteros, L. uter "which of the two, either of two," Lith. katras "which of the two," O.C.S. koteru "which"). Its comparative form is either. The Middle English form is wheiter, and the Modern English form is whether.

which: From Old English hwilc (West Saxon) "which," short for hwi-lic "of what form," from Proto-Germanic *khwilikaz (compare with O.S. hwilik, O.N. hvelikr, Swed. vilken, O.Fris. hwelik, M.Du. wilk, Du. welk, O.H.G. hwelich, Ger. welch, Goth. hvileiks "which. In Middle English used as a relative pronoun where Modern English would use who.

Whit: From Old English hwit, from Proto-Germanic *khwitaz (Old Saxon and Old Frisian hwit, Old Norse hvitr, Dutch wit, Old High German ghwiz and German weiβ), from Proto-Indo-European *kwintos/ *kwindos meaning “bright”. The Modern English spelling is identical to the Middle English spelling but adding a final -e-: white.

Wight: From Old English wiht "living being, creature," from Proto Germanic *wekhtiz (compare with Old Saxon wiht "thing, demon," Dutch wicht "a little child," Old High German wiht "thing, creature, demon," German Wicht "creature, infant," Old Norse vettr "thing, creature," Swedish vätte "spirit of the earth, gnome," Gothic waihts "something"). The only apparent cognate outside Germanic is Old Curch Slavonic vešti "a thing." The Middle English form is wight. In Modern English person.

wisdom: From Old English wisdom, from wis + -dom. A common Germanic compound (compare with O.S., O.Fris. wisdom, O.N. visdomr, O.H.G. wistuom "wisdom," Ger. Weistum "judicial sentence serving as a precedent"). Wisdom teeth so called from 1848 (earlier teeth of wisdom, 1668), a loan-translation of L. dentes sapientiæ, itself a loan-transl. of Gk. sophronisteres (used by Hippocrates, from sophron "prudent, self-controlled"), so called because they usually appear ages 17-25, when a person reaches adulthood. The Middle English form is wisdom, as in Modern English.

Wise: From Old English wis, from Proto-Germanic *wisaz (compare with O.S., O.Fris. wis, O.N. viss, Du. wijs, Ger. weise "wise"), from pp. adj. *wittos of PIE base *woid-/*weid-/*wid- "to see," hence "to know". Slang meaning "aware, cunning" first attested 1896. Related to the source of Old English witan "to know, wit." The Middle English and the Modern English forms remained as wise

Wit: "know," From Old English witan "to know," from Proto-Germanic *witanan "to have seen," hence "to know" (compare with O.S. witan, O.N. vita, O.Fris. wita, M.Du., Du. weten, O.H.G. wizzan, Ger. wissen, Goth. witan "to know"); (n.). The phrase to wit, almost the only surviving use of the verb, is first recorded 1577, from earlier that is to wit (1340), probably a loan-translation of Anglo-Fr. cestasavoir, used to render L. videlicet. The Middle English form is wit, and the Modern English form is know.

With : Old English wið "against, opposite, toward," a shortened form related to wiðer, from Proto-Germanic *withro- "against" (cf. O.S. withar "against," O.N. viðr "against, with, toward, at," M.Du., Du. weder, Du. weer "again," Goth. wiþra "against, opposite"), from PIE *wi-tero-, lit. "more apart," from base *wi- "separation" (cf. Skt. vi, Avestan vi- "asunder," Skt. vitaram "further, farther," O.C.S. vutoru "other, second"). In Middle English, sense shifted to denote association, combination, and union, partly by influence of Old Norse vidh, and also perhaps by L. cum "with" (as in pugnare cum "fight with"). In this sense, it replaced O.E. mid "with," which survives only as a prefix (e.g. midwife). Original sense of "against, in opposition" is retained in compounds such as withhold, withdraw, withstand. Often treated as a conjunction by ungrammatical writers and used where and would be correct. First record of with child "pregnant" is recorded from c.1200. With it "cool" is black slang, recorded by 1931. Its form in Modern English is with.

Withouten: From Old English wiðutan, lit. "against the outside" (opposite of within), see with + out. As a word expressing lack or want of something (opposite of with), attested from c.1200. In use by 1393 as a conjunction. The Middle English form is withouten. . In Modern English without.

Wolde: From Old English wolde, past tense of the verb willan, wyllan “to will”, from Proto-Germanic *welljan (compare with Old Saxon willian, Old Norse vilja, Old Frisian willa, Dutch willen, Old High German wellan, German wollen), from Proto-Indo-European *wel-/ *wol- “be pleasing”. The use of the verb as a future auxiliary was developed in the Old English. The Modern form of the verb is would, but we can translate it from Middle English also as want or wish.

Worthy: "having merit," from Old English worth. Attested from c.1300 as a noun meaning "person of merit". The Middle English form is worthy, as in Modern English.

Wrastlynge: From Old English wræstlian, frequentative of wræstan, meaning “to wrest”. Wrestling is attested by c. 1100, which is a common noun in Modern English.

Wyde: From Old English wid, from Proto-Germanic *widas (compare with Old Saxon and Old Frisian wid, Old Norse viđr, Dutch wijd, Old High German wit and German weit), perhaps from Proto-Indo-European *wi-ito-, from base *wi “apart, away”. The Modern English form is wide.

Yet: From Old English get, gieta, meaning “till now, thus far, earlier, at last, also”, an Anglo-Frisian word (Old Frisian ieta, Middle High German ieuzo). The Middle English and the Modern English forms are identical, maintaining the pronunciation and the spelling.

portfolio 6: results of Antconc programme

A 22
And 20
He 20
Of 17
Was 13
His 9
A 8
In 7
That 7
Ther 7
As 6
And 5
Of 4
That 4
The 4
Al 3
Ffor 3
For 3
He 3
It 3
Or 3
To 3
Wel 3
Were 3
With 3
Wolde 3
Also 2
Any 2
At 2
Brood 2
By 2
Ful 2
Good 2
Greet 2
Hadde 2
His 2
Hise 2
Is 2
Koude 2
Maunciple 2
Millere 2
On 2
Payde 2
Right 2
The 2
Ther 2
Thries 2
Weren 2
Achaat 1
Achatours 1
Algate 1
Alle 1
Alwey 1
An 1
At 1
Ay 1
Baggepipe 1
Bar 1
Be 1
Been 1
Berd 1
Best 1
Biforn 1
Blake 1
Blew 1
Blowe 1
Bokeler 1
Bones 1
Bothe 1
Brawn 1
Breke 1
Broghte 1 1
Brustles 1
Byg 1
Byynge 1
Cam 1
Carl 1
Catel 1
Charitee 1
Cope 1
Corn 1
Cote 1
Cristes 1
Curious 1
Delue 1
Dore 1
Duszeyne 1
Dyke 1
Eek 1
Engelond 1
Erys 1
Euery 1
Exemple 1
Expert 1
Fair 1
Faire 1
Fful 1
Forneys 1
Fox 1
Gamed 1
Gentil 1
God 1
God 1
Gold 1
Goliardeys 1
Grace 1
Hade 1
Harre 1
Haue 1
Heed 1
Heepe 1
Herte 1
Herys 1
Heue 1
Hire 1
Hood 1
Hole 1
Horlotries 1
Hous 1
Hym 1
If 1
In 1
Knarre 1
Langlere 1
Lawe 1
Lay 1
Lerned 1
Lewed 1
Lond 1
Lord 1
Loued 1
Lyuynge 1
Maistres 1
Mannes 1
Men 1
Mere 1
Mo 1
Moost 1
Mouth 1
My 1
Might 1
Myghte 1
Namo 1
Nat 1
Ne 1
Neighbore 1
No 1
Nones 1
Nose 1
Nosethirles 1
Now 1
Or 1
Ouer 1
Out 1
Pace 1
Pardee 1
Pardoner 1
Parfit 1
Pees 1
Poure 1
Prooued 1
Proper 1
Ram 1
Reed 1
Reed 1
Rennyng 1
Rente 1
Reue 1
Sake 1
Self 1
Selue 1
Shal 1
Sholdred 1
Short 1
Smerte 1
So 1
Somnour 1
Sowe 1
Sowes 1
Sowne 1
Spade 1
Staat 1
Stelen 1
Stood 1
Stout 1
Stywardes 1
Swerd 1
Swich 1
Swynkere 1
Side 1
Synk 1
Synne 1
Tabard 1
Taille 1
Take 1
Temple 1
Ten 1
Thane 1
Therto 1
Thikke 1
Thogh 1
Thombe 1
Though 1
Thresshe 1
Tithes 1
Toft 1
Tollen 1
Took 1
Towne 1
Trewe 1
Tymes 1
Vitaille 1
Vp 1
Vpon 1
Vs 1
Wayted 1
Wel 1
Wered 1
Werte 1
Wheither 1
Which 1
Whiche 1
Whit 1
Wight 1
Wisdom 1
Wise 1
Wit 1
Withouten 1
Worthy 1
Wrastlynge 1
Wyde 1
Yet 1

PRE-PRESENTATION PORTFOLIO

Firstly, we have downloaded the AntConc programme to test the frequency of words in our text. Secondly, we are going to pay attention and to comment the evolution of the words which have changed their form in Modern English, and those that have not changed. Finally, we have made a study on the origin of the words, to determine that the most majority of them come from Old English, but also there are some words of French origin, and we consider them an interesting point to comment in our presentation.

TEXT 109: John Hart’s An Orthografie, 1569- howe euerye language ought to bee written (facsimile)

Original text

Which is vppon the consideration of the seuerall voices of the speach, and the vse of their seuerall markes for them, which we cal letters. But in the moderne & present maner of writing ( as well of certaine other languages as of our English) there is such confusion and disorder, as it may be accounted rather a kinde of ciphring, or such a darke kinde of writing, as the best and readiest wit that euer hath bene, could, or that is or shalbe, can or may, by the only gift of reason, attaine to the ready and perfite reading thereof, without a long and tedious labour, for that it is unfit and wrong shapen for the proportion of the voice. Whereas the new maner hereafter ( thoughe it seeme at the first very straunge, hard and vnprofitable) by the reading only therof, will proue it selfe fit, easie and delectable, and that for whatsoeuer English may be written in that order.


Modern translation

Which is upon the consideration of the several voices of the speech, and the use of their several marks for them, which we call letters. But in the modern and present manner of writing ( as well of certain other languages as of our English) there is such confusion and disorder, as it may be accounted rather a kind of ciphring, or such a dark kind of writing, as the best and cleverest brain that has ever been, could, or that is or shall be, can or may, by the only gift of reason, attained to the ready and perfect reading thereof, without a long and tedious labour, for that it is unfit and wrong shaped for the proportion of the voice. Whereas the new manner hereafter ( thought it seems at the first very strange, hard and unprofitable) by the reading only thereof, will prove itself fit, easy and delectable, and that for whatsoever English may be written in that order.

TEXT 110: John Hart’s new alphabet and spelling system (facsimile)

DIFFICULT WORDS

Meet: suitable, correct.
Rude: common, vulgar.

CLASS NOTES: John Hart

He wanted to create a spelling reform but he was not succesful at all because English is one of the few languages which has spelling competition. For example in Spanish, you can pronounce any word if you know the spelling system, but in English that is impossible.

SECOND PORTFOLIO: MODERN TRANSLATION, PHONOLOGICAL TRANSCRIPTION AND METRICAL ANALYSIS OF CHAUCER'S CANTERBURY TALES

CHAUCER’S CANTERBURY TALES FRAGMENT

WORD FOR WORD TRANSLATION

GP 531 A trewe swynkere and a good was he,
A true worker and a good was he,

GP 532 Lyvynge in pees and parfit charitee.
living in peace and perfect charity.

GP 533 God loved he best with al his hoole herte
God loved he best with all his whole heart

GP 534 At alle tymes, thogh him gamed or smerte,
at all times, though him pleased or pained,

GP 535 And thanne his neighebor right as hymselve.
and then his neighbour right as himself.

GP 536 He wolde thresshe, and therto dyke and delve,
He would thresh, and moreover ditch and dig,

GP 537 For Cristes sake, for every povre wight,
for Christ’s sake, for every poor person,

GP 538 Withouten hire, if it lay in his myght.
without payment, if it lay in his power.

GP 539 His tithes payde he ful faire and wel,
His tithes paid he full pleasantly and well,

GP 540 Bothe of his propre swynk and his catel.
both of his own work and his property.

GP 541 In a tabard he rood upon a mere.
In a tabard he rode upon a mare.

GP 542 Ther was also a REVE, and a MILLERE,
There was also a reeve, and a miller,

GP 543 A SOMNOUR, and a PARDONER also,
a summoner, and a pardoner also,

GP 544 A MAUNCIPLE, and myself -- ther were namo.
a manciple, and myself -- there were no more.

GP 545 The MILLERE was a stout carl for the nones;
The miller was a stout fellow for the purpose;

GP 546 Ful byg he was of brawn, and eek of bones.
very strong he was of muscle, and also of bones.

GP 547 That proved wel, for over al ther he cam,
That proved well, for over all there he came,

GP 548 At wrastlynge he wolde have alwey the ram.
at wrestling he would have always the prize.

GP 549 He was short - sholdred, brood, a thikke knarre;
He was stoutly built, broad, a stout fellow;

GP 550 Ther was no dore that he nolde heve of harre,
there was no door that he would not lift off its hinges,

GP 551 Or breke it at a rennyng with his heed.
or break it at a running with his head.

GP 552 His berd as any sowe or fox was reed,
His beard as any sow or fox was red,

GP 553 And therto brood, as though it were a spade.
And to it broad, as though it was a spade.

GP 554 Upon the cop right of his nose he hade
Upon the tip right of his nose he had

GP 555 A werte, and theron stood a toft of herys,
A wart, and thereon stood a tuft of hairs,

GP 556 Reed as the brustles of a sowes erys;
Red as the bristles of a sow ears;

GP 557 His nosethirles blake were and wyde.
His nostrils black were and wide.

GP 558 A swerd and a bokeler bar he by his syde.
A sword and a buckler bore he by his side.

GP 559 His mouth as greet was as a greet forneys.
His mouth as great was as a great furnace.

GP 560 He was a janglere and a goliardeys,
He was a gossip and a buffoon,

GP 561 And that was moost of synne and harlotries.
And that was most of sin and obscenity.

GP 562 Wel koude he stelen corn and tollen thries;
Well could he steal corn and take away three times;

GP 563 And yet he hadde a thombe of gold, pardee.
And yet he had a grave of gold, indeed.

GP 564 A whit cote and a blew hood wered he.
A white coat and a blue hood wore he.

GP 565 A baggepipe wel koude he blowe and sowne,
A bagpipe well could he blow and up and down,

GP 566 And therwithal he broghte us out of towne.
And with that he brought us out of town.

GP 567 A gentil MAUNCIPLE was ther of a temple,
A noble servant was there of a temple,

GP 568 Of which achatours myghte take exemple
Of which purveyor might take example

GP 569 For to be wise in byynge of vitaille;
For to be wise in buying of supplies;

GP 570 For wheither that he payde or took by taille,
For whether that he paid or took by credit,

GP 571 Algate he wayted so in his achaat
He considered so in his purchase

GP 572 That he was ay biforn, and in good staat.
That he was always in front, and in good state.

GP 573 Now is nat that of God a ful fair grace
Now is not that of God a full fair grace

GP 574 That swich a lewed mannes wit shal pace
That such a lewd man wit shall pace

GP 575 The wisdom of an heep of lerned men?
The wisdom of an heap of learned men?

GP 576 Of maistres hadde he mo than thries ten,
Of masters had he more than three ten,

GP 577 That weren of lawe expert and curious,
That were of law expert and curious,

GP 578 Of which ther were a duszeyne in that hous
Of which there were a dozen in that house

GP 579 Worthy to been stywardes of rente and lond
Worthy to be stewards of rent and land

GP 580 Of any lord that is in Engelond.
Of any lord that is in England.


MODERN TRANSLATION

He was a true and good worker,
living in peace and perfect charity.
He loved God best with all his whole heart
at all times, whether it pleased or pained him,
and then his neighbour right as himself.
He would thresh, and moreover ditch and dig,
for Christ’s sake, for every poor person,
without payment, if it lay in his power.
He paid his tithes full pleasantly and well,
both of his own work and his property.
He rode in a tabard upon a mare.
There was also a reeve, and a miller,
a summoner, and a pardoner also,
a manciple, and myself -- there were no more.
The miller was a stout fellow for the purpose;
very strong he was of muscle, and also of bones.
That proved well, for over all there he came,
at wrestling he would have always the prize.
He was stoutly built, broad, a stout fellow;
there was no door that he would not lift off its hinges,
or break it by running at with his head.
His beard, as any sow or fox, was red,
and broad it was, as if it was a spade.
Upon the right tip of his nose he had
a wart, and thereon stood a tuft of hairs,
Red as the bristles of a sow’s ears;
his nostrils were black and wide.
a sword and a buckler he bore by his side.
His mouth was as great as a furnace.
He was a gossip and a buffoon,
and that was most of his sin and obscenity.
He could well steal corn and take it away three times;
and yet he had a grave of gold, indeed.
He wore a white coat and a blue hood.
A bagpipe he could blow well, up and down,
and with that he brought us out of town.
There was a noble servant of a temple,
of which the purveyor might take example
for to be wise in buying supplies;
for whether he paid or took by credit,
he considered that in his purchase
That he was always ahead, in good state.
Now is that not a sign of God’s own grace
That such a simple person should outpace
The wisdom of a heap of learned men?
For of wise masters he had three times ten,
That were so learned in law, all street-wise
Dozens of which his temple did comprise,
Worthy to be stewards of rent and land
For any lord that dwelt within England.


PHONOLOGICAL TRANSCRIPTION

GP 531 A trewe swynkere and a good was he,
ə trewe swynkere ænd ə go:td waz he:,

GP 532 Lyvynge in pees and parfit charitee.
lyvynge ɪn pees ænd parfit charitee.

GP 533 God loved he best with al his hoole herte
ga:d ləvd he: bɛst wɪθ æl hɪs hul herte

GP 534 At alle tymes, thogh him gamed or smerte,
ət alle tymes, thogh hɪm gamed ər smerte,

GP 535 And thanne his neighebor right as hymselve.
ənd thanne hɪs neighebor rajt æz hymselve.

GP 536 He wolde thresshe, and therto dyke and delve,
he: wolde thresshe, ænd ðertɒ dajk ænd dɛlv,

GP 537 For Cristes sake, for every povre wight,
fɔr cristes sek, fɔr ɛvəri povre wajt,

GP 538 Withouten hire, if it lay in his myght.
withouten hajər, ɪf ɪt le ɪn hɪs might.

GP 539 His tithes payde he ful faire and wel,
hɪs tithes payde he: fʊl fer ænd wel,

GP 540 Bothe of his propre swynk and his catel.
boð ɔv hɪs propre swynk ænd hɪs catel.

GP 541 In a tabard he rood upon a mere
ɪn ə tabard he: rud ʊpɔn ə mɪr.

GP 542 Ther was also a REVE, and a MILLERE,
ther waz ɒlso ə reve, ænd ə millere,

GP 543 A SOMNOUR, and a PARDONER also,
ə somnour, ænd ə pardoner ɒlso,

GP 544 A MAUNCIPLE, and myself -- ther were namo.
ə maʊncɪple, ænd mɑjsɛlf -- ther wɜ:re namo.

GP 545 The MILLERE was a stout carl for the nones;
ðə millere waz ə stawt kɑrl fɔr ðə nones;

GP 546 Ful byg he was of brawn, and eek of bones.
ful byg he: waz ɔv brɒn, ænd eek ɔv bonz.

GP 547 That proved wel, for over al ther he cam,
ðat pruvd wel, fɔr ovər æl ther he: kæm,

GP 548 At wrastlynge he wolde have alwey the ram.
ət wrastlynge he: wolde hæv alwey ðə ræm.

GP 549 He was short - sholdred, brood, a thikke knarre;
he: waz ʃɔrt - sholdred, brud, ə thikke knarre;

GP 550 Ther was no dore that he nolde heve of harre,
ther waz no dɔr ðat he: nold heve ɔv hær,

GP 551 Or breke it at a rennyng with his heed.
ər breke ɪt æt ə rennyng wɪθ hɪs hid.

GP 552 His berd as any sowe or fox was reed
hɪs berd æz eni soʊə ər fa:ks waz re:d

GP 553 And therto brood, as though it were a spade.
ənd ðertɒ brɔ:d æz ðəʊ ɪt wɜ:re ə spæd.

GP 554 Upon the cop right of his nose he hade
ʊpɔn ðə kɒp rɪçt ɔv hɪs nəʊz he: hæd

GP 555 A werte, and theron stood a toft of herys,
ə wɜ:rtə, ænd ðerɒn stɔ:d ə tɒft ɔv heri:s,

GP 556 Reed as the brustles of a sowes erys;
re:d æz ðə brʊstels ɔv ə soʊəs eri:s ;

GP 557 His nosethirles blake were and wyde.
hɪs nəʊzθirtels bla:kə wɜ:re ænd widə.

GP 558 A swerd and a bokeler bar he by his syde.
ə swerd ænd ə bɒkeler bar he: bɪ hɪs sɪdə.

GP 559 His mouth as greet was as a greet forneys.
hɪs moʊθ æz grɛ:t waz æz ə grɛ:t forneis.

GP 560 He was a janglere and a goliardeys,
he: waz ə dʒæŋglerə ænd ə gɒliardeis,

GP 561 And that was moost of synne and harlotries.
ənd ðat waz mɔ:st ɔv sinə ænd harlɒtries.

GP 562 Wel koude he stelen corn and tollen thries;
wel koudə he: stelen kɒrn ænd tɒlən θries;

GP 563 And yet he hadde a thombe of gold, pardee.
ænd jɛt he: hæd ə θɒmbə ɔv gɒld, pardɛ:

GP 564 A whit cote and a blew hood wered he.
ə wɪt kɒtə ænd ə bljʊ hɔ:d wɜ:reð he:

GP 565 A baggepipe wel koude he blowe and sowne,
ə bægpaipə wel koʊdə he: bloʊə ænd soʊnə,

GP 566 And therwithal he broghte us out of towne.
ənd ðerwiðal he: brɔ:tə ʊs aʊt ɔv toʊnə.

GP 567 A gentil MAUNCIPLE was ther of a temple,
ə dʒentɪl maʊncɪple waz ðer ɔv ə templə,

GP 568 Of which achatours myghte take exemple
ɔv hwɪtʃ akatoʊrs migtə ta:ke egzæmplə

GP 569 For to be wise in byynge of vitaille;
fɔr to bi: waiz ɪn bi:nge ɔv vɪtaɪlə;

GP 570 For wheither that he payde or took by taille,
fɔr weɪðər ðat he: paɪdə ɔr tɔ:k bɪ taɪlə,

GP 571 Algate he wayted so in his achaat
algatə he: waited səʊ ɪn hɪs atʃa:t

GP 572 That he was ay biforn, and in good staat.
ðat he: waz ai bɪfɒrn, ænd ɪn go:td sta:t.

GP 573 Now is nat that of God a ful fair grace
naʊ iz næt ðat ɔv ga:d ə fʊl fer greɪs

GP 574 That swich a lewed mannes wit shal pace
ðat swɪch ə leu:d mænns wɪt ʃæl peɪs

GP 575 The wisdom of an heep of lerned men?
ðə wɪzdəm ɔv æn he:p ɔv lʒ:rnəd men

GP 576 Of maistres hadde he mo than thries ten,
ɔv mæsters hæd he: mɔ: ðæn θries ten,

GP 577 That weren of lawe expert and curious,
ðat wʒ:ren ɔv lɔ:w ekspʒ:rt ænd Kjʊriəs,

GP 578 Of which ther were a duszeyne in that hous
ɔv hwɪtʃ ðer wʒ:re ə dʌzeɪnə ɪn ðat haʊs

GP 579 Worthy to been stywardes of rente and lond
wʒ:rði to bɪn stu:ərdəs ɔv rent ænd lond

GP 580 Of any lord that is in Engelond,
ɔv eni lɔ:rd ðat iz ɪn ɪngelond,



METRICAL ANALYSIS

GP 531: A / trewe // swyn / ke // re / and // a / good // was / he, 10 syllables

GP 532: Ly/ vynge // in / pees // and / par//fit / cha // ri / tee. 10 syllables

GP 533: God / lov // ed / he // best / with // al / his // hoole / herte 10 syllables

GP 534: At / alle // tymes /, thogh // him / gam / ed // or / s /merte,-- 10 syllables

GP 535: And / thane // his / neigh // e / bor // right / as // hym / selve. 10 syllables

GP 536: He / wolde // thres / she, // and / ther // to / dyke // and /delve, -- 10 syllables

GP 537: For / Cris // tes / sake // for / e // ve / ry // povre / wight, -- 10 syllables

GP 538: With /out // en / hire //, if / it // lay / in // his / myght. 10 syllables

GP 539: His / ti // thes / pay // de / he // ful // faire // and / wel, -- 10 syllables

GP 540: Bothe / of // his / pro // pre / swynk // and / his // ca / tel. 10 syllables

GP 541: In / a // ta / bard // he / rood // u / pon // a / mere. 10 syllables

GP 542: Ther / was // al / so // a / REVE //, and / a // MIL / LERE, 10 syllables

GP 543: A / SOM // NOUR, / and // a / PAR // DO / NER // al / so, 10 syllables

GP 544: A / MAUN // CIPLE/, and // my / self // -- ther / were // na / mo…-10 syllables

GP 545: The / MIL // LERE / was // a / stout // carl / for // the / nones; 10 syllables

GP 546: Ful / byg // he / was // of / brawn //, and / eek // of / bones. 10 syllables

GP 547: That / prov // ed / wel //, for / over // al / ther // he / cam, 10 syllables

GP 548: At / wrast // lynge / he // wolde / have // al / wey // the / ram. 10 syllables

GP 549: He / was // short / - shol // dred /, brood //, a / thik // ke / knarre; 10 syllables

GP 550: Ther / was // no / dore // that / he // nolde / heve // of / harre, 10 syllables

GP 551: Or / breke // it / at // a / ren // nyng / with // his / heed. 10 syllables

GP 552 His / berd // as / a // ny / sowe // or / fox // was / reed 10 syllables

GP 553 And / ther // to / brood // as / though// it/ were // a / spade. 10 syllables

GP 554 U / pon // the / cop // right / of // his / nose // he / hade 10 syllables

GP 555 A / werte // and / ther // on / stood // a / toft // of / herys 10 syllables

GP 556 Reed / as // the / brus // tles / of // a / sowes // e / rys 10 syllables

GP 557 His / nose // thir / les // bla / ke // were / and // wy / de. 10 syllables

GP 558 Aswerd / and / a / bo / ke / ler / bar / he / by / his / syde. 11 syllables

GP 559 His / mouth // as / greet // was / as // a / greet // for / neys. 10 syllables

GP 560 He / was // a / jan // glere / and // a / go // liar / deys, 10 syllables

GP 561 And / that // was / moost // of / synne // and / har // lo / tries. 10 syllables

GP 562 Wel / koude // he / ste/ / len / corn // and / to // llen / thries; 10 syllables

GP 563 And / yet/ / he / hadde // a / thombe // of / gold // par / dee. 10 syllables

GP 564 A / whit // cote / and // a / blew // hood / we // red / he. 10 syllables

GP 565 A / bagge/ / pi / pe // wel / koude // he / blowe // and / sowne, 10 syllables

GP 566 And / ther // with / al // he / broghte // us / out // of / towne. 10 syllables

GP 567 A / gen / til / MAUN / CI / PLE / was / ther / of / a / temple, 11 syllables

GP 568 Of / which // a / cha // tours / myghte // ta / ke // e / xemple 10 syllables

GP 569 For / to // be / wise // in / byyn // ge / of // vi / taille; 10 syllables

GP 570 For / whei // ther / that // he / payde // or / took // by / taille, 10 syllables

GP 571 Al / gate // he / way // ted / so // in / his // a / chaat 10 syllables

GP 572 That / he // was / ay // bi / forn // and / in // good / staat. 10 syllables

GP 573 Now / is // nat / that // of / God // a / ful // fair / grac(e) 10 syllables

GP 574 That / swich // a / lew // ed / man // nes / wit // shal / 10 Syllables

GP 575 The / wis// dom / of // an / heep // of / ler // ned / men? 10 syllables

GP 576 Of / mais // tres / had // d(e) / he // mo / than // thries / ten, 10 syllables

GP 577 That / we // ren / of // law(e) / ex // pert / and // cu / rious, 10 syllables

GP 578 Of / whiCh // ther / wer(e) // a / dus // zeyn(e) / in // that / hous 10 syllables

GP 579 Wor / thy // to / been // sty / ward(e)s // of / rent(e) // and / lond 10 syllables

GP 580 Of / a // ny / lord // that / is // in / En // g(e) / lond 10 syllables






Peeking at the Middle English version in the text, it was seen that there is a rhyme scheme evident. Chaucer employs an AABB rhyme and an iambic ten-syllable per line scheme to set the rhythm (iambic pentameter). This unit of rhyming is said to be a “foot” containing an unstressed syllable (x) followed by a stressed sybllable (/) – x /, which is called an iamb, and there are five of these in a line of verse. Therefore a regular iambic pentameter line contains ten syllables of alternating unstressed and stressed syllables x/ /x / x / x / x / (de-DUM). Lines of verse are not always absolutely regular, but with this patten in mind, we have plenty of evidence in Chaucer’s verse about the number of syllables in words, and their pronunciation and stress patterns.
According to Chaucer, some final (-e) suffixes were pronounced, and some were not. Remember that a final (–e) before a word beggining with a vowel or (h-) is elided, and not pronounced.

He uses decasyllabic rhyming couplets, with some variation. They also tend to form part of an ongoing sequence of forward movement and they tend to be incomplete, not end-stopped to contribute to the narrative energy of the poem. Some lines follow a closely parallel structure in terms of their grammar/syntax. Rhyming words may be the same part of speech and there is internal rhyme too. There are also important rhetorical effects (lines 575-577). If we pay attention to the language, we can notice the combination of familiar phrases and more learned, even courtly references. Fillers and other techniques are used to create flexible rhyme. Optional use of the final –e, wide vocabulary, variety of exclamations, etc.

The challenge of the author was to compose a story using these parameters. Chaucer attempts to describe each character in a realistic, humanistic manner, and he succeeds in doing so. He had a great perspective from the Middle class from which he was born into, and in the stories, he presents the troubadour tradition with irony and sarcasm.


<http://www.teachit.co.uk/attachments/9148.pdf > 31st March 2009 0:02